Electrochemical sensors for detection of thyroid hormones (TSH, FT-3, and FT-4): A promising approach for point-of-care monitoring and diagnosis
Abstract
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Ren B, Zhu Y, A new perspective on thyroid hormones: crosstalk with reproductive hormones in females, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(5) (2022) 2708. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23052708
Gutaj NS, Zawalna N, Gut P, Ruchała M, Relationship between thyroid hormones and a new perspective on thyroid hormones: Crosstalk with reproductive central nervous system metabolism in physiological and pathological conditions, Pharmacological Reports, 74 (2022) 847–858. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43440-022-00377-w
Wang X, Wu Z, Liu Y, Wu C, et al., The role of thyroid-stimulating hormone in regulating lipid metabolism: Implications for body–brain communication, Neurobiology of Disease, 201 (2024) 106658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106658
Ortiz JM, Cote MCS, Bravo EZ, Vallejo LV, et al., Prevalence of hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and euthyroidism in thyroid eye disease: a systematic review of the literature, Systematic Reviews, 9 (2020) 201. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01459-7
Kochman J, Jakubczyk K, Bargiel P, Milczarek KJ, The influence of oxidative stress on thyroid diseases, Antioxidants, 10(9) (2021) 1442. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10091442
Schneider SA, L. Tschaidse L, Reisch N, Thyroid, Disorders and movement disorders – A systematic review, movement disorders, 10(3) (2023) 360–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/mdc3.13656
Hayrapetyan H, Tran T, Corrales ET, Madiraju C, Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: Types and applications, ELISA, 2612 (2023) 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2903-1_1
Zhao Q, Lu D, Zhang G, Zhang D, Shi X, Recent improvements in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays based on nanomaterials, Talanta, 223(1) (2021) 121722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121722
Kim JH, Lee SY, Lee SK, Development of novel lab-on-a-chip platform for high-throughput radioimmunoassay, Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 168 (2021) 109526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2020.109526
Gnanasekar R, Sarnaik JS, Joseph NC, Kadwad VB, Mathur A, Development of two-step radioimmunoassay (RIA) for the measurement of free triiodothyronine in human serum based on antibody coated tubes, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 329 (2021) 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-021-07786-w
Hameedat F, Hawamdeh S, Alnabulsi S, Zayed A, High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection for quantification of steroids in clinical, pharmaceutical, and environmental samples: a review, molecules, 27(6) (2022) 1807. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27061807
Abedini R, Khaniki GJ, Aghaee EM, Sadighara P, et al., Determination of melamine contamination in chocolates containing powdered milk by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 19 (2021) 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-020-00590-w
Clemente F, Antonacci A, Giardi MT, Frisulli V, et al., Last trends in point-of-care (POC) diagnostics for the management of hematological indices in home care patients, Biosensors, 13(3) (2023) 345. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13030345
Dixon S, Glogowska M, Garland S, Hunt H, et al., Clinician perspectives on having point of care tests made available to them during out of hours home visiting, BMC Family Practice, 22 (2021) 246. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-021-01571-0
Rao AS, Radanovic M, Liu Y, Hu S, et al., Real-time monitoring of construction sites: Sensors, methods, and applications, Automation in Construction, 136 (2022) 104099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.104099
Chen J, Chen S, Fu R, Li D, et al., Remote sensing big data for water environment monitoring: Current status, challenges, and future prospects, Earth's Future, 10(2) (2022) 2021EF002289. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EF002289
Romanholo PVV, Razzino CA, Raymundo-Pereira PA, Prado TM, et al., Biomimetic electrochemical sensors: New horizons and challenges in biosensing applications, Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 185 (2021) 113242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2021.113242
Zhu C, Yang G, Li H, Du D, Lin Y, Electrochemical sensors and biosensors based on nanomaterials and nanostructures, Analytical Chemistry, 87(1) (2015) 230–249. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac5039863
Kimmel DW, LeBlanc G, Meschievitz ME, Cliffel DE, Electrochemical sensors and biosensors, Analytical Chemistry, 84(2) (2012) 685–707. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac202878q
Stefan RI, Aboul-Enein HY, The construction and characterization of an amperometric immunosensor for the thyroid hormone (+)-3,3′,5,5′-tetraiodo-l-thyronine (l-T4), Journal of Immunoassay and Immunochemistry, 23(4) (2002) 429–437. https://doi.org/10.1081/IAS-120015474
Chen GC, Liu CH, Wu WC, Electrochemical immunosensor for serum parathyroid hormone using voltammetric techniques and a portable simulator, Analytica Chimica Acta, 1143 (2021) 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2020.11.045
Ramaswamy VD, Keidar M, Progressive approaches in oncological diagnosis and surveillance: real-time impedance-based techniques and advanced algorithms, Bioelectromagnetics, 46(1) (2025) e22540. https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.22540
Andersen S, Karmisholt J, Bruun NH, Riis J, et al., Interpretation of TSH and T4 for diagnosing minor alterations in thyroid function: a comparative analysis of two separate longitudinal cohorts, Thyroid Research, 15 (2022) 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13044-022-00137-1
Díaz MM, Saavedra P, Alberiche-Ruano MP, Rodríguez-Pérez CA, et al., Correlation between TSH levels and quality of life among subjects with well-controlled primary hypothyroidism, Endocrine, 72 (2021) 190–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-020-02449-4
Persani L, Calebiro D, Cordella D, Weber G, et al., Genetics and phenomics of hypothyroidism due to TSH resistance, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 322(1–2) (2010) 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2010.01.008
Borsò M, Agretti P, Zucchi R, Saba A, Mass spectrometry in the diagnosis of thyroid disease and in the study of thyroid hormone metabolism, Mass Spectrometry Reviews, 41(3) (2022) 443–468. https://doi.org/10.1002/mas.21673
Rehman G, Kumari N, Bano F, Tyagi RK, Thyroid hormone receptor beta: Relevance in human health and diseases, Endocrine and Metabolic Science, 13 (2023) 100144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endmts.2023.100144
Słupczyńska M, Jamroz D, Orda J, Wiliczkiewicz A, et al., The thyroid hormone and immunoglobulin concentrations in blood serum and thyroid gland morphology in young hens fed with different diets, sources, and levels of iodine supply, Animals, 13(1) (2023) 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010158
Tsunekawa K, Matsumoto R, Ushiki K, Martha L, et al., Significance of serum branched-chain amino acid to tyrosine ratio measurement in athletes with high skeletal muscle mass, BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 13 (2021) 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-020-00229-1
Moli RL, Malandrino P, Russo M, Tumino D, et al., Levothyroxine therapy, calculated deiodinases activity and basal metabolic rate in obese or nonobese patients after total thyroidectomy for differentiated thyroid cancer, results of a retrospective observational study, Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, 6(2) (2023) 406. https://doi.org/10.1002/edm2.406
Mitchell AL, Pearce SHS, 70 - autoimmune thyroid diseases, Clinical Immunology (Fifth Edition), (2019) 947–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-6896-6.00070-3
Young R, Worthley LIG, Diagnosis and management of thyroid disease and the critically ill patient, Critical Care and Resuscitation, 6(4) (2004) 295–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-2772(23)01699-X
Tran HA, Difficulties in diagnosing and managing coexisting primary hypothyroidism and resistance to thyroid hormone, Endocrine Practice, 12(3) (2006) 288–293. https://doi.org/10.4158/EP.12.3.288
Puchalapalli A, Mahmood A, Neuropsychiatric comorbidities in hypothyroidism: A systematic review, Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research, 37 (2020) 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npbr.2020.06.005
Cai Z, Deng L, Chen Y, Ling Y, Effect of thyroid function on pre-β1 high-density lipoprotein levels in patients with Graves’ disease undergoing radioiodine treatment, Endocrine, 76 (2022) 648–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-022-03024-9
Liu Y, Chen H, Zhang L, Zhang T, Ren X, The association between thyroid injury and apoptosis, and alterations of bax, Bcl-2, and caspase-3 mRNA/protein expression induced by nickel sulfate in Wistar rats, Biological Trace Element Research, 195 (2019) 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01825-0
Sharma H, Kakadiya J, Different novel biomarkers involved in diagnosing hypothyroidism, The Egyptian Journal of Internal Medicine, 35 (2023) 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43162-023-00214-3
Rajesh, Kumar K, Mishra SK, Dwivedi P, Sumana G, Recent progress in the sensing techniques for the detection of human thyroid stimulating hormone, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 118 (2019) 666–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2019.06.033
Baluta S, Romaniec M, Halicka-Stępień K, Alicka M, et al., A novel strategy for selective thyroid hormone determination based on an electrochemical biosensor with graphene nanocomposite, Sensors, 23(2) (2023) 602. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020602
Falk M, Psotta C, Cirovic S, Shleev S, Non-invasive electrochemical biosensors operating in human physiological fluids, Sensors, 20(21) (2020) 6352. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216352
Perez D, Orozco J, Wearable electrochemical biosensors to measure biomarkers with complex blood-to-sweat partition such as proteins and hormones, Microchim. Acta, 189(3) (2022) 127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-022-05228-2
Backiyalakshmi G, Snekhalatha U, Salvador AL, Recent advancements in non-invasive wearable electrochemical biosensors for biomarker analysis – A review, Anal. Biochem., 692 (2024) 115578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ab.2024.115578
Haroon N, Stine KJ, Electrochemical detection of hormones using nanostructured electrodes, Coatings, 13(12) (2023) 2040. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13122040
Muñoz J, Riba-Moliner M, Brennan LJ, Gun’ko YK, et al., Amperometric thyroxine sensor using a nanocomposite based on graphene modified with gold nanoparticles carrying a thiolated β-cyclodextrin, Microchimica Acta, 183 (2016) 1579–1589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-016-1783-x
Zhang B, Tang D, Liu B, Cui Y, et al., Nanogold-functionalized magnetic beads with redox activity for sensitive electrochemical immunoassay of thyroid-stimulating hormone, Analytica Chimica Acta, 711 (2012) 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2011.10.049
Karuppaiah G, Lee MH, Bhansali S, Manickam P, Electrochemical sensors for cortisol detection: Principles, designs, fabrication, and characterization, Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 239 (2023) 115600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2023.115600
Haroon N, Stine KJ, Electrochemical detection of hormones using nanostructured electrodes, Coatings, 13(12) (2023) 2040. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13122040
Pérez D, Orozco J, Wearable electrochemical biosensors to measure biomarkers with complex blood-to-sweat partition such as proteins and hormones, Microchimica Acta, 189 (2022) 127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-022-05228-2
Liang Y, Offenhäusser A, Ingebrandt S, Mayer D, PEDOT:PSS-based bioelectronic devices for recording and modulation of electrophysiological and biochemical cell signals, Advanced Healthcare Materials, 10(11) (2021) 2100061. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.202100061
Disha, Nayak MK, Kumari P, Patel MK, Kumar P, Functional nanomaterials based opto-electrochemical sensors for the detection of gonadal steroid hormones, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 150 (2022) 116571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2022.116571
Anand A, Su FY, Chen TH, Chen YF, Chen YT, Ultrasensitive quantification of thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroxine by nanoelectronic SnS₂ transistor sensors, ACS Sens., 10(6) (2025) 4095–4104. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.5c00115
Chbihi K, Menouni A, Berni I, Chetouani H, et al., Occupational exposure to pesticides among farmworkers in Morocco: A study framework for endocrine and epigenetic effect assessment, Toxics, 13(5) (2025) 340. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050340
Puthiyachirakal MA, Hopkins M, AlNatsheh T, Das A, Overview of thyroid disorders in pregnancy, Matern. Health Neonatol. Perinatol., 11 (2025) 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40748-025-00208-9
Huang K, Zhou W, Fu J, Zhang Q, et al., Linking transthyretin-binding chemicals and free thyroid hormones: In vitro to in vivo extrapolation based on a competitive binding model, Environ. Sci. Technol., 57(25) (2025) 9130–9139. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c01094
Leirs K, Dosso FD, Ruiz EP, Decrop D, et al., Bridging the gap between digital assays and point-of-care testing: Automated, low cost, and ultrasensitive detection of thyroid stimulating hormone, Anal. Chem., 94(25) (2022) 8919–8927. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.2c00480
Behyar MB, Mirzaie A, Hasanzadeh M, Shadjou N, Advancements in biosensing of hormones: Recent progress and future trends, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 173 (2024) 117600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2024.117600
Cao S, Zheng S, Pang H, Ultrathin nanosheet-assembled accordion-like Ni-MOF for hydrazine hydrate amperometric sensing, Microchimica Acta, 187 (2020) 168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-020-4153-7
Picca RA, Manoli K, Macchia E, Sarcina L, et al., Ultimately sensitive organic bioelectronic transistor sensors by materials and device structure design, Advanced Functional Materials, 30(20) (Special Issue: Emerging Thin‐Film Transistor Technologies and Applications, (2020) 1904513. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201904513
Ozcan HM, Aydin UD, A simple immunosensor for thyroid stimulating hormone, Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 49(1) (2021) 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/21691401.2020.1867153
Beitollahi H, Khalilzadeh MA, Tajik S, Safaei M, et al., Recent advances in applications of voltammetric sensors modified with ferrocene and its derivatives, ACS Omega, 5(5) (2020) 2049–2059. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.9b03788
Miao W, Jia D, Rui Y, Liang W, et al., Interaction mechanisms of the binding of polychlorinated biphenyls to thyroid hormone transporters revealed based on quantum chemistry and spectroscopy, Journal of Molecular Structure, 1281 (2023) 135104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2023.135104
Dai H, Liu Z, Ou L, Shen Y, et al., Iron nanoparticles decorated TiO2 hollow microspheres for boosting degradation of tetracycline in a photo-Fenton catalytic system, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 11(5) (2023) 110797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110797
Park SY, Kim J, Yim G, Jang H, et al., Fabrication of electrochemical biosensor composed of multi-functional DNA/rhodium nanoplate heterolayer for thyroxine detection in clinical sample, Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 195 (2020) 111240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111240
Gajdosova VP, Lorencova L, Blsakova A, Kasak P, et al., Challenges for impedimetric affinity sensors targeting protein detection, Current Opinion in Electrochemistry, 28 (2021) 100717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100717
Dkhar DS, Kumari R, Mahapatra S, Divya, et al., Antibody-receptor bioengineering and its implications in designing bioelectronic devices, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 218 (2022) 225–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.07.109
Özcan HM, Yildiz K, Çakar C, Aydin T, et al., Ultrasensitive impedimetric biosensor fabricated by a new immobilisation technique for parathyroid hormone, Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 176 (2015) 1251–1262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-015-1643-x
Sailapu SK, Kraikaew P, Sabaté N, Bakker E, Self-powered potentiometric sensor transduction to a capacitive electronic component for later readout, ACS Sensors, 5(9) (2020) 2909–2914. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.0c01284
Rudenko N, Fursova K, Shepelyakovskaya A, Karatovskaya A, Brovko F, Antibodies as biosensors’ key components: State-of-the-art in Russia 2020–2021, Sensors, 21(22) (2021) 7614. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21227614
Jiang C, Wang G, Hein R, Liu N, et al., Antifouling strategies for selective in vitro and in vivo sensing, Chemical Reviews, 120(8) (2020) 3852–3889. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00739
Elskens JP, Elskens JM, Madder A, Chemical modification of aptamers for increased binding affinity in diagnostic applications: Current status and future prospects, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(12) (2020) 4522. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124522
Haupt K, Rangel PXM, Bui BTS, Molecularly imprinted polymers: Antibody mimics for bioimaging and therapy, Chemical Reviews, 120(17) (2020) 9554–9582. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00428
Ali GK, Omer KM, Molecular imprinted polymer combined with aptamer (MIP-aptamer) as a hybrid dual recognition element for bio(chemical) sensing applications. Review, Talanta, 236 (2022) 122878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122878
Antiochia R, Electrochemical biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection: Voltametric or impedimetric transduction Bioelectrochemistry, 147 (2022) 108190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108190
Babu S, Lee K, Yang H, Enzymatic precipitation of highly electroactive and ion-transporting prussian blue for a sensitive electrochemical immunosensor, ACS Sensors, 9(6) (2024) 3224–3232. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.4c00569
Kelkar N, Prabhu A, Prabhu A, Nandagopal MSG, et al., Sensing of body fluid hormones using paper-based analytical devices, Microchemical Journal, 174 (2022) 107069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2021.107069
Karami P, Gholamin D, Johari-Ahar M, Electrochemical immunoassay for one-pot detection of thyroxin (T4) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) using magnetic and Janus nanoparticles, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 415(19) (2023) 4741–4751. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-023-04767-8
Anand A, Su F-Y, Chen T-H, Chen Y-F, Chen Y-T, Ultrasensitive quantification of thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroxine by nanoelectronic SnS₂ transistor sensors, ACS Sensors, 10(6) (2025) 4095–4104. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.5c00115
Xue Y, Li J, Ma M, Fu P, et al., Recent advances on rapid detection methods of steroid hormones in animal origin foods, Biosensors, 15(4) (2025) 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15040216
Parrilla M, Wael KD, Wearable self-powered electrochemical devices for continuous health management, Advanced Functional Materials, 31(50) (2021) 2107042. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202107042
Cabrero IA, Doimi F, Ortega V, de Oliveira Lima JT, et al., Recommendations for streamlining precision medicine in breast cancer care in Latin America, Cancer Reports, 4(6) (2021) 1400. https://doi.org/10.1002/cnr2.1400
Seger C, Salzmann L, After another decade: LC–MS/MS became routine in clinical diagnostics, Clinical Biochemistry, 82 (2020) 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2020.03.004
Rodríguez JFH, Rojas D, Escarpa A, Electrochemical sensing directions for next-generation healthcare: trends, challenges, and frontiers, Analytical Chemistry, 93(1) (2021) 167–183. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04378
Yao S, Ren P, Song R, Liu Y, et al., Nanomaterial-enabled flexible and stretchable sensing systems: processing, integration, and applications, Advanced Materials, 32(15) (Special Issue: Flexible Hybrid Electronics) (2020) 1902343. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201902343
Thacharodi A, Singh P, Meenatchi R, Ahmed ZHT, et al., Revolutionizing healthcare and medicine: The impact of modern technologies for a healthier future – A comprehensive review, Health Care Science, 3(5) (2024) 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1002/hcs2.115
Vignesh V, Dominguez BC, James TD, Turner JMG, et al., Advancements in cortisol detection: from conventional methods to next-generation technologies for enhanced hormone monitoring, ACS Sensors, 9(4) (2024) 1666–1681. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.3c01912
Timilsina SS, Jolly P, Durr N, Yafia M, Ingber DE, Enabling multiplexed electrochemical detection of biomarkers with high sensitivity in complex biological samples, Accounts of Chemical Research, 54(18) (2021) 3529–3539. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.1c00382
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15826/elmattech.2025.4.059
Copyright (c) 2025 Mashrufa Akther, Md. Sharif Mia, Sarna Akter, Md. Sagor Ahammed, Md. Rakibul Islam, Md. Rahim Uddin, Md. Mahmud Alam

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
